Nature based solutions in agricultural landscapes: an ecosystem service perspective

Abstract

Nature-based solutions (NbS) are interventions that work with, manage, or restore natural processes to address societal challenges such as climate change, biodiversity loss, and sustainable resource management. They are promoted for their potential to deliver multiple ecological, social, and economic benefits, yet their effectiveness in agricultural landscapes remains uncertain. This thesis examines the ecological performance and social dimensions of NbS, focusing on rural sustainable drainage systems (RSuDS) and beaver-influenced habitats, to assess contributions to natural capital, ecosystem service delivery, disservices, and barriers to uptake. Beavers were shown to make a substantial contribution to Scotland’s woodland natural capital. Through expert elicitation and integration into the Natural Capital Asset Index, results highlighted how beaver activity enhances regulating services at a national scale, with benefits expected to increase as populations expand. Complementary analysis of RSuDS using the Rapid Assessment of Wetland Ecosystem Services (RAWES) framework and spatial methods revealed that these interventions primarily deliver regulating services, especially water quality improvement and flow regulation, while also exposing trade-offs, limited provisioning benefits, and methodological gaps in cultural service valuation. Further investigation into greenhouse gas disservices from agricultural ponds, using direct measurement and structural equation modelling, showed that all ponds acted as net emitters of methane and carbon dioxide, with methane exerting the greatest climate forcing. Emission drivers were linked to depth, nutrient status, and oxygen availability, offering pathways for mitigation. In parallel, a national survey of farmers and advisers shed light on the social and governance dimensions of NbS. Financial risk, inflexible design, and limited advisory support were identified as key barriers to uptake, with recommendations for simplified applications, outcome-based payments, and farmer-led collaboration. Together, these studies provide an integrated ecological and social assessment of NbS in UK agricultural landscapes. By linking natural capital accounting, ecosystem service evaluation, and stakeholder perspectives, the thesis advances understanding of multifunctionality, disservices, and governance challenges, offering evidence to inform the design and scaling of more effective, inclusive NbS.